Mysore Sadashiva Rao (1800-1870) Biography and Works

Biography

Mysore Sadashiva Rao was one of the most important composers and followers of musical traditions of Sri Tyagaraja.

A prominent vocalist of the Mysore court, he can be credied as the pioneer of Mysore Bani. Sadashiva Rao was born to Ganesha Rao and Krishna Bai at Girampet near Chittoor in North Arcot. They were Marathi Smartha Deshasthas. He had his musical training under Venkataramana Bhagavatar, a pupil of Thyagaraja. Two of his patrons, brought him to Mysore and introduced him to Sri Krishnaraja Wadayar III, the Mysore king at the time. Impressed by his singing, he was made a court musician.

Sadashiva Rao was also a great teacher. His disciples like Veena Sheshanna and Veena Subbanna later became legendary musicians. Sadashiva Rao has composed mostly in Telugu. He went on a pilgrimage of south India and composed krithi-s at all the temples he visited. He also composed a krithi for Thyagaraja and sung it when he visited Walajapet.

Mudra: Sadashiva

Genre Carnatic: Krithi

Languages used: Telugu, Sanskrit

Compositions:

Devadideva - Mayamalavagaula - Adi

Gangadhara Tripuraharana - Purvikalyani - Misra Chapu

Paramabhuta Maina - Khamas - Adi

Sita Lakshmana Sametha- Kambhoji - Jhampa

Sri Kamakotipeetha - Saveri - Adi

Veena Kuppayyar (1798-1860) Biography and Works

Veena Kuppayyar was a famous vainika (veena player), disciple of Shri Thyagaraja and a composer of merit.

Veena Kuppayyar was born into a musical family in Tiruvottiyur. His father Sambamoorti Sastri was a famous vocalist and a veena player. Kuppayyar had his initial training from his father. Later he became a disciple of Thyagaraja and learnt composing from him. He was also a Sanskrit and Telugu scholar. He also learnt violin, which was a new instrument in Carnatic music at the time. But, it was for his profiency in Veena that Kuppayyar came to be well known and veena became a part of his name too.

Veena Kuppayyar later shifted to Muthialpet in Madras. Kovur Sundara Mudaliar was his primary patron and enjoyed the status of asthana vidhwan there. Even Thyagaraja visited Mudaliar's madras house. Kuppayyar trained a lot of disciples in his gurukula, who carried forward the Thyagaraja shishya parampara, helping to spread his krithi-s and music.

Veena Kuppayyar composed in Telugu, both krithi-s and varnam-s. His varnam-s like saami ninne kori (Shankarabharanam) are very famous. His mudra was Gopaaladaasa, in honour of his family diety.

Mudra: Gopaladasa

Genre Carnatic: Krithi, Varnam

Languages used: Telugu

Compositions:

Inta Paralekha - Begada - Rupaka
Vinayaka Ninnuvina - Hamsadvani - Adi
Inta Chalamu - Begada - Adi
Inta Chouka - Bilahar - Adi
Nenarunchi - Danyasi - Khanda Ata
Koniyadina - Kambhoji - Adi
Sami ninne kori - Sankarabharanam - Adi

ARUNAGIRINATHAR (15th century)

Musical Background: Although in his early years he was known to have led an immoral life, he later reformed himself and spent the rest of his life in music.

Region: He hailed from Tanjavur district, Tamilnadu. He is also believed to have travelled far and wide, to visit temples, singing in praise of many deities.

Contribution: He was the creator of Tiruppugazh, which means, "praise of God" in Tamil. He was a prolific composer, who is believed to have composed 16000 songs, of which only about 2000 remain today. His Tiruppugazhs are known for their beautiful, flowing lyrics coupled with complex rhymes and rhythmic structures. His Tiruppugazhs led to the invention of a new genre of tala called Chanda Tala. Thus he earned the title,"Chanda Pavalaperuman", meaning, "unequalled master of the verse". He also composed in many of the 35 talas, 175 talas, as well as 108 talas. He was well known for the rhythmic intricacies he wove effortlessly into his compositions. His work, Bhoota Vetala Vaguppu, contains information about some Ragas, Panns, the 108 talas and percussion instruments, making it invaluable from a historical point of view. All the Tiruppugazhs end with the word "perumale...", making it easy to identify the composer.

Theme: Devotion was the main theme. Although he composed mainly on Lord Subramanya, there are Tiruppugazhs on other deities like Lord Ganesha too.

Languages used: Tamil.

Popular Compositions: Vachana miga (Atana), Erumayileri (Hamsanandi / Mohanam), Tullumada (Hamsanandi) etc.

JAYADEVA (1101-1173) Biography and Works

Jayadeva was perhaps the first composer to specifically mention the raga and tala of each of his poems.

His Ashtapadhis have been very famous among the carnatic artists, though, it is not very certain whether the specific ragas are sung the same way now as was done in Jayadeva's time.

Jayadeva is most well knows for his Sanskrit magnam opus Githa Govinda. He is also very prominent among the Vaishnavaite poets.

Musical Background: Jayadeva, the author of Githa Govinda, is an illustrious Sanskrit composer. He became an erudite scholar early in his life.

Region: He was born at Kindubilva (also called Kenduli) in Orissa. The village Kenduli is on the northern banks of the river Ajaya, in the delta of Veerabhoomi. He refers to his birthplace in the 7th Ashtapadi: "Kindubilva Samudra Sambhava". He was an Oriya Brahmin, born to Bhojadeva and Ramadevi.

Contribution: Gita Govinda, a widely known, highly popular opera of Jayadeva is the staple of devotional singers. They constitute the Songs Celestial called Ashtapadi as each has eight steps. The 24 songs have been translated into many languages of the world. All the hymns contain mangala slokas at the end. The place where Jayadeva began and completed the hymns has since been called Jayadevapura.

Theme: Devotion through Sringara Rasa (romanticism).

Languages used: Sanskrit and Oriya

Signature: He used his own name as mudra.

Popular compositions: Rase harimiha

Compositions:

Pravisarade Ghanta Jhampa Ashtapadi

Radhika Krishna Desakshi Adi Ashtapadi

Ratisukhasare Kedaragaula Adi Ashtapadi

Srita Kamala Bhairavi Triputa Ashtapadi

SADASIVA BRAHMENDRA (18th century)

The mystic saint that we want to talk about is Sadasiva-brahmendra. Regarding his time there is not enough evidence. It has to be some period of time between the middle of the sixteenth century and the middle of the eighteenth century. The reasons are as follows. The 57th pontiff of the Kanchi Kamakoti Mutt, namely Sri Paramasivendra Saraswathi (1538 –1586) had a pupil by name Ramanatha who later had a pupil by name Nallai Adhvari. This Adhvari acknowledges Sadasiva-brahmendra as his guru. A junior contemporary of Sri Paramasivendra saraswathi was Nilakanta-Dikshidar, grandson of the brother of the famous Advaita scholar-devotee Appayya Dikshidar (1520 – 1593). Appayya Dikshidar was a great scholar-teacher of advaita vedanta, hailing from Tamilnadu. He was the guiding spirit of a movement in which he organized the services of a large band of volunteers who could disseminate among the masses the philosophy of advaita and the worship of Lord Siva. Having mastered, at a very early age, all the knowledge available at the time in philosophy, rhetoric and literature, he wrote about a hundred works, of which only 60 are now extant, in philosophy, devotional poetry and literary and philsophical criticism. His poetical talent is transparent in all these works. He is said to have travelled widely, entering into philsophical disputations and controversies in many centres of learning, including Varanasi. He was so firm in his belief in advaita that he had no qualms in using his talent to the elucidation of other schools of thought like those of Vedanta-desikacharya of whom he was an admirer. His was a mighty intellect and he led a life of karma, bhakti and jnana, setting a model for posterity to follow.

This Nilakanta, the grandson of Appayya Dikshidar, was the chief minister of King Tirumalai-Nayak of Madurai. Nilakantha had a pupil Ramabhadra who had a pupil by name Venkatesa Dikshidar who later came to be known by the name Ayyaval of Tiruvisanallur. This Ayyaval and Sadasiva Brahmendra had been schoolmates. This much is known. On the other side we know that Sadasiva Brahmendra met the Tamil scholar-poet-devotee-philosopher Tayumanavar (1705 – 1742?) in 1738 A.D. Raghunatha Raya Tondaiman (Rajah of Pudukkottai) (1730-1769) subscribes to this meeting. These are the major factors for scholars coming to the almost unbelievable conclusion that Sadasiva perhaps lived for nearly 200 years. But if we know what kind of mystic and knower of brahman he was, we tend to feel that the improbable could have been possible. The Upanishadic maxim: brahmavid brahmaiva bhavati ( meaning, the knower of brahman is brahman), really applies to Sadasiva Brahmendra. It is only in mythology we come across such a brahma-vit - examples are: boy-sage Suka, and Sage jaDa-bharata - but in our own historical world, such examples are rarest of the rare. Sadasiva Brahmendra is one such.

Growing up in a village on the banks of the Cauvery in Tamilnadu, Sadasiva was a most gifted student, much given to arguing and debating. After an early marriage and a spark of revelation on the day of his wife’s reaching puberty he renounced the world and performed a strenuous sAdhanA for eighteen years. One day he was taunted by his guru for his talkativeness. On that day he took a vow of silence and he kept it up for the rest of his life which he spent as a wandering naked (avadhUta) sannyasi. The songs he composed during the period of his discipleship are still very popular. In his wanderings, of which we have no complete record, he is said to have performed many miracles which were just an overflowing of the compassion he had for all humanity. He was one of the greatest of siddhas. His mind was always immersed in the Absolute brahman. His name is part of the folk-lore in all of South India. His major work is brahma-sUtra-vRtti, which is a scholarly but lucid commentary on the brahma-sUtras. He has thirteen other works to his credit - such as, yoga-sUtra-vRtti, also called yoga-sudhAkaram; jagad-guru-ratna-mAlotsava, a history of Kanchi Kamakoti mutt in 87 verses; advaita rasa-manjari in 45 verses; and others. His Atma-vidyA-vilAsam is a composition in 62 verses together forming a spiritual autobiography. The verses describe how a knower of brahman would behave and as far as the folklore and all the stories about Sadasiva-brahmendra go, the description fits him most suitably. He may be rightly called the Saintly Perfection of the Impersonal absolute.

Fully engrossed in the enjoyment of his own bliss, he remains in another world as it were; and as strikes his fancy, here he is engaged in thought, there he is singing and there he is dancing. Verse No.21

The sage shines supreme, silent and placid, with the ground under the tree as his resting place and with his palm as the begging bowl, wearing no clothes but only the jewel of non-attachment Verse No.35

Having dissolved the entire world (by right knowledge) and being under the power of the all-embracing substratum that survives such dissolution, he puts into his mouth by force of prArabdha-karma, the handful of food which comes to him Verse No.40

The yogi sees nothing, speaks nothing and hears nothing that is spoken. He remains steadfast in the incomparable region of bliss, immovable like a log of wood. Verse No.44

The great renouncer who knows the Truth of all the vedas wanders like an ignorant fool un-noticed, devoid of all sense of difference and seeing only Perfection everywhere and in all creatures. Verse No. 45

Embracing the Lady Equanimity and having been overpowered by Bliss he sleeps with his head for a pillow, with nothing for cover and with the bare ground for a bedding. Verse No.46

The sage rejects nothing considering it bad; nor does he accept anything, considering it good. Knowing that everything is the result of Ignorance, he remains unattached. Verse No.50

He does not think at all of what is past, nor does he care in his mind about the future. He does not even care who is in front of him, for He is the One Perfect Bliss in everything. Verse No.51

The king of renouncers rests alone, rooted in Self and enjoying the Inner Bliss; he rejects nothing that comes to him and never desires what does not come to him. Verse No.53

The great ascetic transcends the rules of caste and status shaking off from him the injunctions and prohibitions of the scriptures and he remains merely the perfect Knowledge-Bliss. Verse No.57

This was exactly how he himself lived. So it is very difficult to get any historical help from stories about him. He was such a mystic that any story could have fitted him. To sift fact from fancy is utterly impossible. However a few miracle-stories that have been catalogued by no less a person than the famous Sankaracharya of Sringeri himself may be cited, because we may trust the yogic capabilities of the Swami who must have had his own reasons to list them in the only written biography, composed by him, that we have of Sadasiva Brahmendra. Believe them or not, here are the stories.

On the river banks of the Cauvery in Mahadanapuram in Tiruchy District he was seen by a few kids. They requested him to take them to the religious fairs in Madurai, that time being the solar month of Leo when the Madurai temple has usually an annual festival. The sage perhaps felt an overflow of compassion for them. He asked them to close their eyes and in no time they were in Madurai (more than 100 miles away); they had their darsan of the Lord and the Goddess there, they feasted at the festivities and in due time before it was night they were back in Mahadanapuram on the same banks of the Cauvery. The parents of the children would not believe the stories but their graphic description of the Madurai festivities right to the last detail baffled them. They ran to the Cauvery banks to look for the sage but he was not there.

On the river bed of Kodumudi river Sadasiva Brahmendra was sitting in trance on the sands. Suddenly water flowed down the river in a flood and the river was flooded for the next few months. Spectators saw water submerge him as he was still sitting in his trance. He was given up as drowned. But three months later when the floods subsided he was still there in the same trance posture; he just rose up and walked away.

It was harvest season. He was seen ‘carelessly’ crossing the haystacks which have been piled up on the paddyfield. The warnings given to him to avoid the haystacks went unheeded. One of the men around raised his hatchet to hit him. But lo! the raised hand stayed right there. The sage was walking along as if nothing had happened. The rest of the spectators ran to him and pleaded that he save the man who had raised his hand to hit him. The sage looked back and the hand came down. The sage walked away.

Long after all these happened when almost people had forgotten the memories of his wandering in their lands, once the naked sannyasi was seen walking right through a muslim harem of a Nawab. As a brahma-jnani who sees nothing but brahman everywhere, he would not distinguish between the different human figures which cross his path nor would he be distracted by the sights or noises that his environment may present to him. It was in this state of trance that he was walking along. He, the naked sannyasi, walked straight into the harem, entering it at one end and walking out at the other all the while walking through a maze of inmates of the Nawab’s harem. The news reached the nawab, he had his men chase him, they cut off both his hands as he was walking along, the hands fell off and … still he was walking along silently as if nothing had happened. The nawab got scared, picked up the hands that had been severed, ran to the Sage and offered them in total remorse. The sage stopped his walking, the severed hands were restored to their place, the hands became normal and the sage walked away! There was no conversation.

It was Venkatesa AyyavaL, his classmate of old times, that broke his silence, maybe once or twice. During his discipleship days Sadasiva used to sing bhajans in a sweet voice. AyyavaL reminded him of those good old days and implored him to sing again for the benefit of the people who would certainly enjoy listening to his songs. Then came some wonderful songs, all of them having the theme of ‘The Experience of the Bliss of remaining in the Absolute brahman’ – brahmA-nubhavaM, brahma-saMsparzaM, brAhmI-sthiti as it is variously called in the Gita and elsewhere. Sadasiva-brahmendra’s songs are so delightfully full of this blissful divine experience that they are even now constantly rendered by musicians in concerts and public gatherings for a spiritual purpose; and when they are so rendered, no one will miss the elevating moods that they generate - even in those who do not understand the language, Sanskrit, in which it has been composed by the saint.

Musical Background:
His musical background is not known clearly. However, he was a great scholar who initially studied under Ramabhadra Dikshitar and later under the Sankaracharya of Kanchipuram. Region: He was born in Tiruvisainallur, near Kumbakonam, Tamilnadu.

Contribution: He wrote several devotional songs, which have a simple beauty that makes them appealing. His other works include Brahma Sutra Vruddhi, Atma Vidya Vilasam and Siva Manasika Puja keertanas.

Theme: His compositions contain high philosophical ideas, in addition to being devotional.

Language used: Sanskrit.

Signature: He used the mudras Paramahamsa or Hamsa.

Popular Compositions: Bhajare Gopalam (Hindolam), Pibare ramarasam (Yamankalyani), Bhajare Yadu Natham (Peelu) and so on.

Compositions :

manasa samchara re , brahmani manasa samchara re … (Hey mind, dwell on brahman … )

sarvam brahma-mayam, re re sarvam brahma-mayam … (Everything is brahman to the brim … )

khelati mama hrudaye rama … (Rama is sporting in my mind … )

piba re rama-rasam … (Drink the nectar of rAma, hey …. )

bruhi mukundeti … (Recite mukunda, speak of Him … )

cintha nasti kila … (they have no worries, …. )

are all very famous and each one of them is a capsule of the bliss of brahman that Sadasiva had enough to spare for others.

Appayya Dikshidar wrote siddhAnta-leSa-sangraha, which is the first reading for all students of advaita from his time It contains all the different dialectic thinking under one presentation in prose. But it is however a very elaborate book. Sadasiva Brahmendra epitomised this book in verse form in 212 verses and called it siddhAnta-kalpa-valli. This again became a little too much for readers. In the 20th century, Vasudeva brahmendra (who attained siddhi in 1931 A.D. and who was also a direct disciplic descendent of the famous Upanishad-brahma-yogin of the 18th century who wrote the commentaries for all the 108 upanishads) wrote a concise summary of the whole thing in prose, entitled SAstra-siddhanta-leSa-tAtparya-sangrahaH. Incidentally it is this Vasudeva-Brahmendra who was the guru of R. Visvanatha Sastri (1882-1956), the father and guru of this author. Humble prostrations to the Guru-paramparA.

BHADRACHALA RAMADAS (1620 - 1688)

Biography

Bhadrachala Ramadas - Popularly known as Bhakta Ramadas, he was born Gopanna to Linganna Mantri (a surname he kept as a result of one of his forebears being a minister at the court of a king) & Kadamba (sister of Madanna, a brahmin minister to TaniShah), in 1620 in Nelakondapalli, a small village in Khammam district, Andhra Pradesh. Since childhood, he imbibed his family's interest in spirituality and composed several keertanas on Raama. His devotion to Vaikunta Rama at the temple at Bhadrachalam, a small village in the middle of the jungle on the northern banks of the holy river Godhavary, earned him his name Bhadrachala Raamadaas. His guru was Raghunatha Bhattacharya.
During the reign of Abdul Hasan Tana Shah,(the nawab of the Qutub Shahi Dynasty at Golconda), Ramadas (Gopanna), thanks to his uncle Madanna, was appointed as a Tahsildar at Bhadrachalam, a pretty and picturesquely situated temple town on the Godavari river. Ramadas was always distracted and his intense love for Lord Rama compelled him to build a temple at Bhadrachalam. He collected money for the construction from the citizens, but didn't have enough. So he borrowed from the tax revenue of the nawab and gave his god a worthy abode, vowing to return the money. The nawab was furious and sentenced Ramadas to 12 years in prison. Raamadaas thus earned the name Bandekhana Raamadaas. Frustated at god's indifference to his pleadings, Ramadas composed some of the finest keertanas in his prison cell (reminding Raama of his services in Ishvaku Kula Tilaka).
It is said that Raama & Lakshmana in the guise of two youngsters paid up his dues and got his release papers. The golden coins paid by Raama are known as Ram Tanka coins .They can be seen even today. These coins have the Pattabhishekam scene on one side and the picture of another Rama Bhaktha, Hanuman, on the other side. The nawab was moved and recognized the greatness of Raamadaas and released him immediately and gave him land around Bhadraacalam to continue his dedicated service to Bhadrachala Raamamoorty. Raamadaas spent the rest of his life on these lands and composed further moving poems that were to inspire Tyagaraja: in ksheera saagara sayana in devagaandhaari, he says "Dhirudau Ramadasuni Bandhamu dirchinadi Vinnanura Rama?" (O Rama! I have heard how You obtained the release of the bold Ramadas from his prison life) ; in brindaavanalola in thodi, in kaligiyunde gada in keeravaani, in Emi dova balkuma in saaranga and in Prahlaada Bhakti Vijayam he says "kaliyugamuna vara bhadra calamuna nelakonna raamacandruni pada bhaktula kella varudanandagi velasina shree raamadaasu vinutintu madin" (I praise Sri Raamadaas, who shines in this world as the supreme devotee of Sri Raamacandra, who shines forth from his seat at Bhadraacalam in this kali Yuga).

Background: Named Gopanna by his parents Linganna and Kamalamba, he became known as Ramadas (Das meaning servant or slave), because of his deep devotion to Lord Rama.

Region: He belonged to Nalakondapalli, a small village Andhra Pradesh.

Mudra: Bhadraadivaasa, Ramadas

Contribution: He composed in the keertana form (the precursor to the Kriti form) and his songs contain multiple Charanams. Tyagaraja seems to have been a great admirer of Ramadasa’s devotion to Rama and praises him in a few of his compositions. His language is very simple and music very pleasing. His works include Manache Sloka, Dasabodha and Sundara Kandam of Ramayana.

Theme: The theme was predominantly devotion.

Languages used: Mostly Telugu and occasionally Sanskrit.

Signature: He used several mudras like Bhadrachala, Bhadradri or Bhadragiri.

Popular Compositions: Emayyarama (Kambhoji), Rama dayajudave (Dhanyasi), Paluke bangara mayena (Anandabhairavi), Nannubrovu (Kalyani) etc. Other compositions are positive invocations, favored by traveling minstrels, including the Tondaiman rulers of Pudukottai in Tamil Nadu, who popularized his songs. Among his other accomplishments is the creation of the whole Ramayana story in the form of a prose-poem, a Choornika. Ramadas described himself in this way in the last verse of his Dasarathi Satakam: "Allana Linga Mantri Suthudu(son), Atreya Gothrudu, Adi Sakha , Kancherla Kulothbhavudu, Gopakavindrudu." Bhadraacala Raamadaas lived for 68 years.

Compositions:

alola tulasi - shankaraabharanam
adugu daati - mohanam
amma nannubrovave - saveri
antaa raamamayam - aananda bhairavi, kaamavardhani
bhajare shreeraamam - kalyani
caranamule nammiti - kapi
dasharatha raama - shankaraabharanam, kaapi
dheena dayaalo - bhairavi, kaapi
diname sudinamu - kaapi
E teeruga - naadanaamakriyaa
edanunnaado - naata kurinji
ee vela nannu - kamas
emayya raama - kaambhoji
ennagaanu raama bhajana - kamavardhani
ento mahaanubhaavudavu - shankaraabharanam
etiki dayaraaduraa - mukhaari
evaru dooshincinanemi - aananda bhairavi
garuDagamana raaraa - shurutti, kaamavardhani
hari hari raama raama - dhanyaasi
itaramu leruganayyaa - shankaraabharanam, naadanaamakriyaa
kaakutstha tilakudu - asaveri
kamalanayana vaasudeva - shenjurutti
mithilesha tanaya - kaambhoji
muchhataina naadavemiraa - huseni, naadanaamakriyaa
naa moraalakimpa - vasanta
narayana narayana - shankaraabharanam
nammina vaarini - dhanyaasi
nannu brovamani - kalyani
narahari deva - yaman kalyani
narulaara chedi - shankaraabharanam
O raama nee - yamunaa kalyani
O raghunandana - madyamavati
O raghuveera - kedara gowla
paahi maam raamaayante - yadukula kaambhoji
pahi raama prabho - madyamavati
paalayamaam shree - madyamaavati
paavana raama - dhanyaasi
paluke bangaara maayenaa - aananda bhairavi
raama daivashikhaamanee - thodi
raama raama bhadraacala - neelaambari, aahiri
raama raama raama - mukhaari
raama raama seetaaraama - aananda bhairavi
raama raama shreeraama - dhanyaasi
raama sudhaambudi - saveri, madyamavati
raamaa dayajoodave - dhanyaasi
raamaa naa manavi - aananda bhairavi, asaaveri
raamabhadra raaraa - shankaraabharanam
raamajogi mandu - vasanta, kamaas
raamakrsihna govinda - dhanyaasi
raaraa naavenna - kambhoji
rakshincamanu marokkeda - sahaanaa
seetaaraama seetaaraama - huseni
shree raama naamamu - naadanaamakriyaa
shree raamula - saveri
swaami nanu - shurutti
taraka mantramu - dhanyaasi
tagunayya dasharatha - shankaraabharanam

Sri Purandara Dasa (1494-1564)

Purandara Dasa was the follower (dasa) of Lord Purandara Vittala [Lord Vishnu in one of his many avatars.] is known as the father (Pitamaha) of Carnatic music.

Biography

Purandara Dasa was born in 1484 in Pandarpur, an obscure village near Purandargarh near Poona. He was originally named Shreenivaasa (or Krishnappa) Naayaka. His father's name was Varada Naik. Purandara Daasa was considered an avatar of Sage Narada - when he was studying, he learned music as well. At 16 he married Lakshmibai, and four years later his parents died. Purandara Daasa had 4 sons and a daughter. He worked as a money lender, continued the family business, and became prosperous, but he was infamous as a miser. They said he earned much money and he lived only to earn it. An incident in his life, however, changed him and he gave away all his wealth. From then on, he composed and lived by the popular saying "we must swim across suffering, win victory over it." It is said that Lord Vishnu decided that it was time for Srinivasa Nayaka (Purandara Dasa) to give up his love of money and become a saint. So he came to him as a poor brahmin looking for money for his son's thread ceremony. Nayaka did not give him the money, but the brahmin visited his shop again and again, and after six months, Purandara Daasa gave him a collection of useless, worn-out coins to get rid of him. The brahmin went away unhappily, but knowing Purandara Dasa's wife was a kind woman, he went directly from Purandara Dasa's shop to his house. He told Saraswathi his story and how her husband had sent him away with nothing. Saraswathi wanted to help the poor brahmin, but felt helpless since she could not give anything without her husband's permission. When she explained her helplessness, the brahmin asked if she had something given by her parents (which, presumably, she could give without asking for her husband's permission). She agreed and gave him the diamond nose-stud that her parents had given her. The brahmin took the ornament straight to Purandara Daasa's shop. When Purandara Dasa became angry with the brahmin for coming back, despite his instructions to the contrary, the brahmin clarified that he was there not to beg, but to pledge an ornament and take a loan. Purandara Dasa was skeptical and asked the brahmin to show him the ornament. When he saw the ornament, he was confused because he immediately recognized it as the one belonging to his wife. When Purandara Dasa asked him about it, the brahmin told him that it was a gift from a benefactor. Purandara Dasa asked the brahmin to come the next day and locked the ornament away. When he saw his wife without her ornament he questioned her about it. She tried to stall him, but he insisted on seeing it immediately. He was angry because he thought she had given away a valuable ornament to a beggarly brahmin. Saraswathi knew that her husband would punish her if she told him the truth. So she decided to commit suicide by drinking poison. Just as she was about to drink the poison, she heard a metallic sound. Lo and behold, the ornament was right there in the cup. She could not believe her eyes. Her heart filled with gratitude, she bowed before the idol of Krishna and took the ornament to her husband. Purandara Dasa was astounded as it was the very same ornament that he had safely locked away in his shop. He quickly ran back to the shop to check. The box where he had safely locked away the ornament was empty! He was now completely and totally dumbfounded. He went back to his house, and pressed his wife to tell him the truth. She told him everything that had happened. After deep thought, this Shreenivaasa Naayaka came to the conclusion that the brahmin was none other than God Himself. He recalled all the incidents of the previous six months. He was disgusted with himself, and his miserliness. He felt that his wife had conducted herself far more decently and generously than himself. Since it was his love of money that had made him ill-treat the Lord, he gave away all of his wealth with the Lord's name on his lips and began to compose music.
Purandara Dasa had earned the name Navakoti Naaraayana, indicating his great riches. Then he began a new life with his family - his wife Saraswati, 4 sons (Varadappa, Gururaya, Abhinavappa and Gurmadhvapathi) and a daughter. Like him, his wife and children composed verses and songs. In course of time Purandaradasa came to Hampi and settled down with his wife and children. Every morning Purandaradasa went into the town wearing bells on his ankels and tulasi mala around his neck. He carried a tamboori in the hand and sang his Hari-keertanas sounding the tamboori with his fingers. He sang these songs to the accompaniment of tamboori and the bells tied to his ankles and went about the streets of the town. The people admired the listened to his songs. Purandaradasa accepted alms given to him during the wandering and led a life of renunication. He who had been called Navakoti Narayana now had willingly accepted the life of a saint and begged for his food. In 1525, Purandara Dasa became a disciple of the great Vyaasa Raayaa, who titled him "Purandara Vitthala," which became his signature, which he uses in all his compositions. Vyaasa Raaya praised him, saying "Among the devotees of Hari, Purandara Daasa is the greatest." Purandara Dasa expressed his gratitude by singing "My only refuge is the feet of Vyaasaraja. I was able to understand Purandara Vittala by his grace." The composer was also given the name Purandaropanishat and many other names. The title Vitthala refers to the Lord Vishnu, or Krishna.

Purandara Dasa is said to have composed 475,000 songs in both Kannada and Sanskrit. PurandaradAsa adopted a simple, lucid Kannada style with telling phrases and similes. He sang many rare ragas with among the most beautiful lyrics. He identified 84 ragas, including ragas such as kalyani, varali, todi, bhairavi, and saaveri, which are popular in use today. Tyagaraja's praise in "Prahalada Bhakti Vijayam" is for him and in fact, some of his famous songs are patterned after those by Purandara Dasa, such as Nanupaalimpa, based on Daasa's Bide ninnayya pada. Purandara Dasa also used a variety of musical types: kritis, keertanas - devotional songs, padams - a dance form using hero-heroine, plus many more rare forms. The verses he sang were his own compositiions on a variety of themes. Some of them described Sri Krishna's adventures in this world. Some others sang about God's kindness to man. A few more verses were simple compositions expounding the philosophy contained in the Vedas, Upanishads and Bhagavadgita in simple words. In yet other verses Purandaradasa praises Lord Krishna affectionately. In some verses Purandaradasa has even made fun of the Lord. His songs which preached surrender to Vittala have an elusive fragrance, poetic fervour, extraordinary logic and cutting satire. His music was popularized by M.L. Vasantakumari.
The gods his songs adored: Sri Vittala (Krishna) of Pandarapura is associated with Bhakthi and Bhajan movement since the time immemorial. Sri Vittala is still being adorned by large number of devotees barring caste, religion, sex etc. Sri Purandara Dasa has continued this tradition by keeping his ankita or mudra as Purandara Vittala, and his songs praise this Vittala, meaning Krishna or Vishnu. His songs also praised Ganesha, Saraswathi and other gods and goddesses, but the themes always returned to Vittala.

Musical Background: Although Purandaradasa did not have any musical tutelage in his early years, by the grace of God, he started singing and composing songs. He is acclaimed as the Sangita Pitamaha (Great Father) of Carnatic music, owing to his unparalleled contributions.

Region: Purandaragada, Karnataka

Contribution: He formulated the basic lessons of Carnatic music by structuring Swaravalis (graded exercises), Alankaras (exercises based on the Sapta talas), apart from composing Gitas. He introduced Mayamalavagowla as the first scale to be learnt by a beginner. However, the original tunes of his compositions are unavailable. He was the one of the most prolific composers of Carnatic music. Though he wanted to compose 5,00,000 songs in his lifetime, he could compose only 4,75,000. This has been referred to in one of his own compositions.

The poet and the composer

Purandara Dasa's songs are filled with rhyme and meaning. One song talks about how it is human nature to have desire for material objects, only for God to dispose of them, that the human has to suffer without them (kudure andhana aane bayasodhu nara chiththa paadhachaari aagodhu hari chiththavayya - to ride on a horse chariot or elephant is human desire, but to be a pedestrian is what God wills).
Popular Compositions: Jagadoddharana (Kapi), Jaya Jaya (Nata), Innudaya barade (Kalyanavasantam), Venkatachala nilayam (Sindhubhairavi), and so on.

Signature: The mudra he used was Purandara Vittala

Languages used: Kannada and Sanskrit

Theme: His devotional songs called Devarnamas, contain the essence of the Puranas and Upanishads. His songs have simple language, lofty ideas and sublime thoughts. His favourite deity seems to have been Krishna, also known as Panduranga. However, he has sung in praise of other Gods, as well.
Purandara Dasa was the first of the Haridasas, or "servants of Sri Hari" also known as Vishnu or Krishna. All the Haridasas composed in KannaDa, a language used primarily in Karnataka, but Purandara Daasa established the precedent of composing in the vernacular or common tongue. All Haridasas were servants of God and their songs included the following messages:

God is easily approachable by all.

God is to be praised and constantly remembered as our benefactor.

Realising the true nature of God's benevolence towards us and offering even simple worship within the means available to one is more acceptable to Him than ritualistic or pompous ornamentation without mental participation.

Some of Purandara Dasa's lyrics are really memorable. For example, he writes, Kendake orale muttuvudunte?... Do ants cluster around a hot coal? Another line goes, Hasida bekku hatthiya tindanthe.. Describing a hungry cat eating cotton. These lyrics make it clear that Daasa was a poet as well as a scholar of musical form.

His death: Scholars think that Purandara lived for about 80 years (until 1564). On the basis of the verse in the name of Madvapathi his son it is held that Purandaradasa must have passed away a year before the fall of Vijaynagar. Taking it as authentic, his death anniversary is celebrated on the New Moon Day, in the second fortnight of Pushya.

Compositions:

aanalekara (geetam) - sudda saaveri
amma nimma manegalalli - sowraashtram
aparaadi naanalla - revati
bandadella barali - kaapi
bhaagyada lakshmi baarammaa - shree, madyamaavati
candrachuda - raagamaalika
dayamaado dayamaado - kalyani
deva banda - shankaraabharanam
devaki nandana - raagamaalika
dharma shravanavetake - durga
dharmave jayavemba - shenjurutti
gajavadanaa beduvE - hamsadwani
govindaa ninna - jana sammodhini
hari naaraayana - revati
hari smarane maado - yamunaa kalyani
jagadoddhaaranaa - dhanakaapi, kaapi
jaya jaya jaya jaanakikaantaa - naata
kandenaa govindanaa - candrakowns
kodu bega divyamati - saraswati, vasantaa
ksheeraabdi kannige - raagamaalika
mareya beda manave - kamaas
maaraayanaa - sudda dhanyaasi
nambi kettavaru illavo - kalyani
neenyaako ninna - raagamaalika
ninnane nambi - bhairavi
ninne nodi - thodi
odi baarayya - bhairavi
raama mantrava - jonpuri
raama raama raama raama - raagamaalika
sakala graha bala - athana
sanna hejegalittu - valachi
sharanu siddhi vinaayaka - sowraashtram
sharanu sakaloddhaara - naata
simharoopanaada - kedara gowla
shreenivaasa neene - aananda bhairavi
taamboolava kollu - reeti gowla
taaraka bindige - sowraashTram, tilang
tamboori meetidava - sindu bhairavi
tirupati venkataramana -kharaharapriyaa
venkatachalanilayam - sindu bhairavi
venkataramanane baaro - shankaraabharanam
yaadava nee baa - karnataka devagandhari
yaare rangana - hindolam

PRE-TRINITY COMPOSERS

I have provided a list of names of some of the greatest composers from the pre-trinity (before the late eighteenth century). I have briefely discussed only some of these composers and I will continue to add to this list in the future.

Tirunavukkarasar
7th Century

Thirugnana Sambandar
7th century

Sundarar
7th Century

Azhwars
6 - 11 Century

Manikkavachakar
10th century

Jayadevar
12th century

Muthuthandavar
14th century

Annamacharya
14/15 Centuries

Arunagirinathar
15th century

Purandaradasa
15/16th century

Kshetrajna
16th century

Narayana Theertha
16th century

Bhadrachala Ramadas
17th century

Sarangapani
17th century

Arunachala Kavirayar
18th Century

Pacchimiriyam Adiappa
18th century

Marimuthu Pillai
18th century

Sadasiva Brahmendrar
18th century

Oothukadu Venkatasubbier
17/18th centuries


Thirunavukkarasar: (7th Century) This great composer was also known by the name of Appar. He hailed from Thanjavur in Tamilnadu. He was a Saivite or a devotee of Shiva and was known as one of the three great saints of the Tevaram Trinity. Tevara Pathigams are sacred humns and Thirunavvukkarasar has composed over 30,000 verses of the Thevaram. Even today, in Saivite temples, Thevaram is recited as part of the rituaals. Thevaram songs belong to the musical form "Virutham." Appar is known as the father of the bhakthi or devotional movement. The Thevaram humns convey great philosophical ideas and are written in simple language so that the common individual can relate to them and udnerstand their significance.. The Thevarams are grouped under the song classification "Thirumurai."

Thirugnana Sambandar: (7th Century) Like his predecessor, Appar, Sambandar, was born in the Thanjavoor district. He is supposed to have been blessed by Goddess Parvathi and from then on began to compose songs and other devotional lyrics. His songs are classified as virutham. The story is that Sambandar composed his first song, tOdudaiya Seviyan, at the age of three, making him the youngest composer ever in the world. Sambandar wrote a variety of compositions, some about nature; others, as a combination of romance and bhakthi or devotion, visioning Shiva as the Nayakan and the poet as the Nayaki. Thus, Sambandar contributed to the development of not only Saivism but also to the development of music.

Sundarar: (7th Century) followed both Appar and Sambandar and has even composed songs about these two great poets who preceded him. His songs, somewhat like Sambandar’s hymns, portray Lord Shiva as his friend, philosopher and even the playmate with whom he sometimes talks to in anger, jest, and affection.

Azhvars (6th to 11th centuries)
Unlike the three great Saivite composers – Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar – the Azhvars sang in praise of Vishnu. There were 12 Azhvars. Nathamuni, an admirer of Mathura Kavi Azhvar, a disciple of Nammazhvar, compiled 4,000 hymns composed by the Azhvars into a book called the “Nalayira Divya Prabhandam,” a book considered sacred and important for expressing bhakthi by the Vaishnavite followers. A great feature of the Azhvar’s compositions is that they emphasize that, in reality, there is no difference between Shiva and Vishnu, bringing out the unity of one Paramapursha. Andal, was the only female Azhvar. She is supposed to have composed the Thiruppavai, devotional hymns sung during the month of Margazhi (Dec-Jan).

Manickavachagar (10th Century): Another great composer of the 10th century was Manickavasagar. He is the composer of two of the greatest poetical treatise of his period, ThiruvAchakam and TiruvempAvai. Although I have mentioned the period as tenth century, it is not absolutely certain whether he was from this period. A few historians date Manickavasagar as pre-Thevaram period (before the 7th century) while others place him as a poet from the post-Thevaram (10th century or later) period. Regardless of the period, the contributions to Indian music and poetry that Manickavasagar made through ThiruvAchakam and TiruvempAvai is unquestionable.

Note: Thirunavukarasar, Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar, the thirumurthi's of Devaram used several PaNNs or the equivalent of modern day Raga and similarly, the NalAiyira Divyaprabhandam also used several PaNNs. Thus, the Thevaram Thirumurthis and the twelve Azhvars have had a significant influence on the subsequent development of Indian music system. Interested readers may refer to sangIta ratnAkara, the musical treatise written by sAarangadeVa points to many paNNs as part of his treatise on Indian music.

Jayadeva (12th Century) is the author of Ashtapathi. Ashta means eight and these songs are written with eight charanams and hence called Ashtapathis. Jayadeva also is well known for composing a musical play (Gaya Natakam) in Sanskrit, called Geetha Govindam and Ashtapathis are integral to each other. Jayadeva was a poet in the court of Lakshmana Sena of Bengal. When Jayadeva wrote the Geetha Govindam, there was only one Indian music and there were no separate distinctions called Carnatic music and Hindustani music. In the Geetha Govindam, Jayadeva describes the relationship between Krishna and Radha, his devotee, and symbolizes the union of the individual soul with the universal soul or Paramathma and Jeevathma.

Arunagirinathar (15th Century). Arunagirinathar is the author of the famous Tamil songs collectively called Thiruppugazh or the Praise of the Lord. Most of the songs are in praise of Lord Muruga, son of Shiva. Like Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar, Arunagirinathar also set his songs to music. One of the greatest contributions of Arunagirinathar is to the concept of Laya or Thalam. Because of his contributions to the development of Thala, Arunagirinathar is given the title of “Chandppavalapperuman” and “Talachelvar.” He has also been responsible for highlighting some of the greatest ragas and setting his compositions in such ragas as Anandhabhairavi, Varali, Lalitha, Malahari, Bauli, etc. Like the Azhvars, Arunagirinathar did not discriminate between Saivism and Vaishnavism. To him, all of these philosophies, took us to the same destination and the unity of religions was more important than differences. The Thiruppugazh highlight human values and righteous conduct more than rituals or worship routines. Some of the notable works of Arunagirinathar include: Kandarnubhoothi and Kandaralankaram – both in praise of Lord Muruga or Karthikeya.

Muththandavar (14th Century) Like many others before and after him, Muthuthandavar became a poet because of his extreme devotion to God. The story about Muthuthandavar is that when he was very young, he was affected by a serious disease and was neglected by his relatives. He lived near the temple and ate whatever was offered as food at the temple to devotees. He became very frutstrated with his life and prayed to God to rescue him. Goddess Parvathi, the wife of Lord Shiva appeared before him and asked him to go to the shirine of Lord Nataraja in Chidambaram. Muthuthandavar does accordingly and begins to compose songs in praise of Lord Shiva or Nataraja. His first composition was "Bhooloka kailasagiri chidambaram." His other famous song is "Aru marundoru thani marundu ambalaththe kandene". Muththandavar is well-known for the padams and is credited with creating the padam form of Carnatic music.

Annamacharya: (15th Century) Annamacharya or Tallpakam Annamacharya is from the holy city of Tirupathi, from the current day Andhra Pradesh. Annmacharya was not only a great composer but also a musicologist. He created the musical forms that we use today to separate a composition into Pallavi, Anupallavi, and Charanam. Annamacharya was born as into family that followed the Advaitic philosophy propounded by Adi Sankara. However, Annamacharya was facinated by the Vaishnavite Azhvars and their compositions and accordingly, converted to the Vishistadvaitic philosophy propounded by Sri Ramanuja. Some scholars even to go the extent of saying that many of the compositions of Annamacharya were literal translations of Azhvar pasurams into Telugu, his mother tongue. Regardless of whether such claims are true or not, the greatest contribution of Annamacharya is the codification of the bhajana or worship through songs tradition. He promoted madhura bhakthi or a devotional worship where the devotee assumes himself or herself to be a sweet heart of the Lord and consider the Lord as the beloved Hero.

Some of the great works of Annmacharya include: Over 10,000 Sankirtanas or musical lyrics, 12 Satakas (sets of one hundred verses), a treatise on SankIrtana lakshaNa or the grammar of sankirtanas, Sringara Manjari, and Venkatachala Mahatmyam in praise of Lord Venkateshwara of Tirupathi.

Kshetrajna or Kshetrayya (16/17th Century): He was born in Muvapuri in Krishna District of Andhra Pradesh. Many consider Kshetrajna to be the father of Padams (same claims have been made of Muthuthandavar as well). Like Annamacharya, Kshetrajna also promoted madhura bhakthi. He composed many of his padams on rare ragas. Please refer to the article on music forms for an explanation of Padams. He is supposed to have composed 4,200 padams of which only about 125 are available today. Five of these padams were composed in praise of King Vijayaraghava Naik of Thanjavur and are known as "Vijayaraghava Pancharathnam" or "Kshetrayya Pancharathnams."

Narayana Teertha (16th or 17th Century) took up sanyasa or gave up family life at a very early age. His most famous contribution is the "Sri Krishna Leela Tharangini," a dance-drama in praise of Lord Krishna. It was written in Sanksrit and consisted of twelve tarangas. The Krishna Leela Tharangini is nothing but the essence of Bhagavad Gita composed into songs. One of the well-known disciples of Narayana Thirtha is Sonti Venkatasubbaya, himself the guru of the Great Saint Thyagaraja. Narayana Theertha was not only a scholar of Carnatic music but also of Bharatha Natyam. The Sri Krishna Leela Tharangini contains 12 tharangams (or waves), 147 Keerthanas, 267 Slokams, and 39 Gadyams (a musical form). The Krishna Leela Tharangini is also an opera and takes us, through dance-drama, through the lives of Lord Krishna since his birth throuogh his marriage with Rukmini. The ragas that Narayana Theertha selected and used brings out the emotions. He is also supposed to have composed two other operas, "Parijatha Abaharanam" and "Haribhakthi Sundarnavam."

Bhadrachala Ramadasa (17th Century): Ramadas lived in Andhra Pradesh. Bhadrachala Ramadas's famous work is the Dasrathi Satakam. Ramadasa is supposed to have received his musical knowledge and blessing from the illustrious Kabir Das. There is a famous story about Ramadasa Ramadasa was a clerk in the Nawab's court. When Ramadas collected taxes from the citizens, instead of paying it into the treasury, he used them to renovate the Sri Rama temple in Bhadrachalam. The Nawab assumed that Ramadas has stolen the revenue for himself and accordingly, put him in prison. Ramadas spent his time at the prison composing songs on Sri Rama. One day, Lord Rama along with his brother Sri Lakshmana appeared like ordinary citizens and paid the Nawab the money that Ramadas has spent building the temple and got Ramadas released from the prison. Saint Thyagaraja also refers to this incidence in his famous compostion, "Ksheerasagarasayana." .

Sarangapani (17th Century): Like Muthuthandavar before him, Poet Sarangapani was famous for his padams.He has written over two hundred padams. He wrote compositions in both Sanskrit and Telugu. In his personal life, he was a Minister of Education in the court of Maharaja Venkata Perumal of Karvetinagaram, Andhra Pradesh. Sarangapaniwas also a learned scholar of the Natya Sastra or the Art of Dance. Most of his padams were in praise of Lord Krishna.

Purndaradasa (15/16 centuries): Purandaradasa was born in Pandharpur (currently in Karnataka State) and like his father, Purandaradasa was a money-lender by profession. The story is that Purandaradasa was also very miserly and he became liberated and became wise after Lord Vishnu came as a Brahmin person, asking for alms for his son’s upanayanam and Purandaradasa’s wife made Purandaradasa realize the greatness of sharing and charity.

After this incident, Purandaradas moved to Hampi and became a disciple of Vyasa Raya and composed many songs in both Kannada and Sanksrit. His compositions are simple and yet contain great meaning and wisdom. He composed his songs in many rare ragas such as Vasanthabhairavi, Manjeesabhairavi, Maravi, etc.

Purandaradasa is said to have codified or systematized the teaching of music and it is his contributions that allows every student to go through the hierarchical process of learning music starting from Sarali Varisai, Janta Varisai, Thattu Varisai, etc. For this reason, Purandaradasa is called the Pitha Maha of Carnatic music or the Great Father of Carnatic Music. Purandaradasa’s greatness was recognized even by his guru, Vyasa Raya. Vyasa Raya conferred the title Purandara Vittala on his disciple.

Arunachala Kavirayar lived in the 18th century. He was a maste of the Kamba Ramayanam, written by the famous Tamil poet Kambar. Based on the Ramayana Arunachala Kavirayar composed the "Rama Nataka Keerthanaigal" Another famous compostion of Arunachala Kavirayar is the "En palli kondeerayya," in praise of Lord Ranganatha of Srirangam temple. He is also credited with other literary works such as "Ajamukhi natakam", "Anumar Pillai Tamizh", Sirkazhi Sthala Puranam" and "Sirkazhi kovai".

Pachimiriyam Adiyappa lived in the 18th century. He is the guru of the great Syama Sastry, one of the trinitis of Carnatic music. Many of are familiar with the Viriboni varnam in Bhairavi ragam. Pachimiriyam Adiyappa is the composer of this varnam. Sri Adiyappa is also well-known for contributing the musical form tana varna. For this reason, he is known as the "Tanavarna margadarsi."

Marimutha Pillai also lived during the 18th century. He is supposed have composed songs from an early age and most of his compositions were on Lord Nataraja of Chidambaram. His most famous contribution is the "Puliyoor Venpa." His compositions followed the Nindatuti format.

Sadasiva Brahmendra was also a poet of the 17th century. Like Narayana Thirtha, he took up sanyasa at a very young age. He had composed about two dozen songs in the Sanksrit language. Most of them are sung as part of the Bhajana sampradaya. Many of today's musicians have also popularized his compostions (e.g. M. Balamuralikrishna). Most of his compositions were either about Sri Rama or Lord Krishna and in some cases about the Nirguna Brahman or Lord without attributes. One of his famous conposition is Gayathri Vanamali.

Oothukadu vEnkatasubbayyar was almost the end of the gredat composers of the pre-triniti era. He hailed from Mannargudi in Thanjavur District of current day Tamilnadu. He is also popularly known as Venkata Kavi. Venkata Kavi is supposed to have been blessed by Lord Krishna and hence acquired his musical knowledge through the Lord's blessings. Most of Venkatasubbayar's compositions have not been preserved and have been lost to posterity. If we preserve even some of his compositions today and have access to the treasures of this great musician, it is because of musicians such as Needamangalam Krishnamurthy Bhagavatar and most recently, Chitraveena Ravikiran.

Oothukkadu Venkata Kavi was prolific and was a learned scholar of not only music but also dance and was proficient in many languages. His knowledge translated itself into his compositions evidenced by the hundreds of rare and traditional ragas that he has used and the rare and complicated thalas that he has handled. He not only produced the regular kritis but also various forms within them such as tillana, sloka, kavadi chindu, and javali. His most significant contributions include: Kamakshi Navavarna kritis, Saptaratnas (similar to Pancharathnas of Saint Thyagaraja), and even couple of operas. His compositions expressed not only bhakthi and devoition to God but also moral values such as humility and modesty.